CHAPTER
ONE
LITERARY
APPRECIATION
The
Meaning of Literature
Literature is a word
derived from a Latin word ‘Littera’ which means, ‘letter of the alphabet’.
Literature as a field of study has many definitions. Some of these definitions
tend to describe literature as writings valued as creative works, as writings
of a country or as anything in print. However it is wrong to limit Literature
to only written materials. An effort to reduce Literature to only written
materials removes from Literature the Literature of Preliterate societies that
were not written down. For example, Nigeria only began writing with the advent
of European education in the 19th century. Should we then conclude
that Nigeria had no Literature before the coming of the British Education, it
would be a wrong conclusion. Of course, the proverbs, songs, folktales, riddles
etc that existed in preliterate societies like Nigeria are forms of Literature.
Creative writings valued as work of arts are only forms of literature.
Literature is an umbrella word used to describe a variety of creative works of
imagination that may be written or oral. We can also define Literature as
imitation of Life. It is an imaginary composition. Literature is not a faithful
record of reality as History is. This means Literature merely copies actual
life people, events and situations.
Professor Egudu in his
book, The Study of Poetry, describes Literature as ‘a mode or method of
expression. This implies that Literature
is
concerned with the manner in which words are put together to express a new
idea. It is not a subject that just says something new, but says that new thing
with skillful manipulation of words as somebody plaiting hair dexterously
weaves it to form a beautiful hairstyle like braid.
The
Functions of Literature
We study literature
because of its great value, which include the following;
1.
Entertainment: One of the functions of
literature is entertainment. The primary purpose of literature is to provide
entertainment. A book that fails to provide entertainment can hardly pass for a
literature book. We read novels, play, recite poems mainly for recreation.
People tell stories or sing to entertain themselves. Referring to this function
of literature, Horace had said that literature is out to please and delight
2.
Mastering of English Language:
By
reading literary works composed in the English Language, students get familiar
with new words and master the structure of the English Language.
3.
Emotional Relief: By expressing our
thought or our emotions as we often do through literary works or reading
literature books, we release our emotions. This is because a literary work
leaves us at the end of easthetic experience with a relax mind, by providing
our emotions with focus.
4.
Social Control: Literature serves as a weapon
of social control. The literary artiste (i.e. novelist, poet, e.t.c.) is like a
watch dog to the society. He barks the moment things start going wrong.
Morality of the society is measured through his works. Also through works of
literature wrong-doings of a society are exposed to all and sundry.
5.
Literature also functions as a means of direct experience. Some literary works have the settings (background)
of a foreign land we may not have been to. E.g. The Merchant of Venice
written by Shakespeare has Venice, Belmont as well as Jewish and Christian
traditions as its background. In the same vein, The Joys of Motherhood,
written by Buchi Emechata has Ibusa, Lagos together with the Igbo culture as
its background. Thus by reading such works, we get to know about the people and
places reflected without having been to these lands.
6.
Literature Mirrors Life: By this we mean that literature is a mimetic art.
It imitates. The events, Situation and characters we find in literature shows
real life situations. As we get amused by actions in literary works or condemn
activities of some characters, we equally laugh at ourselves or condemn
ourselves.
7.
Literature is a reservoir of culture:
When
we read literary works written by people from other culture area, we get to
know about those cultures. Sometimes we learn more about our own culture by
reading works by authors from our culture area. This is because most of the
literary works we read embodies culture of a group of people. Simply put,
Literature is a store in which culture are stocked or preserved.
8.
Literature Serves As Historical Document/ Social Document: A literary work would be used by historians as
social document to reconstruct history of past society. This is because; a
literary work conveys or reflects time it was written as well as the virtues
and the prejudices of the time. The idea is that, every writer is influenced by
the happenings of the time he is writing. In fact some novels, poems, plays
e.t.c are reactions to political happenings at the time they were written.
9. Finally, Literature is also a means of education and
enlightenment: It teaches new things and new ways of doing things.
In so doing, it broadens our knowledge and builds our individual skills. In
addition, it informs us about the happenings around us.
ELEMENTS
OF LITERATURE
There are four basic
elements of literature. This include
1. Character
2. Plot
3. Subject Matter/Theme
4. Setting
1.
Characters: These are the people we read about in a literary
work. In a literary work, a writer describing actions or ideas must as well
describe the characters affected by the actions or ideas. The major interest of
an audience is on the people in a drama. So also our central interest is on the
characters in a novel. The author of a literary work makes his comments on
society through his characters. A good writer must have complete knowledge of his characters; the way they look, how
they talk, e.t.c. There are two identifiable ways of showing characters, namely
are, Motivation and Setting.
Motivation:
This
refers to the reason for a character’s action. The reason for a character’s
action must be given. In literature, as in life, characters dictate actions.
For example, if Shylock had not insisted on Antonio’s pound of flesh, the play,
Merchant of Venice would have been something different. A writer has to ensure
that the reasons behind his character’s action are clear and logical.
2. Setting: It is the place in
which a character’s story takes place. The people in literature, like the one
who reads about them, do not exist in space. They act and react to one another.
They also react to their world. The real geographical location, the period and
cultural environment are some of the things which come together to form
setting. For example, the setting of Sizwe Bansi is Dead is South Africa
and the Apartheid regime. So also the settings of The Joys of Motherhood
are Ibusa, Lagos as well as the Colonial period.
3.
Plot: Every literary work has element of plot. Plot tells
what happens to the characters. It is the story-line of a literary work. A plot
is created around a series of event that occur within a specific period of
time. There are no general rules guiding the order in which the events are
arranged. However a good plot has a beginning, middle and an end. That is to
say, the plot guides us from a character with problem {somewhere} through a
character confronting the problem, {through somewhere} to the character
overcoming or being overcome by the problem {to a point.}
E.M. Forster describes
plot as “the arrangement of event in cause-effect relationship”. This means a
plot tells us what makes something happens (cause) and what happens (effect).
If there is no relationship between cause and effect, there will be no
conflict, and therefore no plot.
A story is
different from a plot. Story is the narration of a series of events or
happenings in chronological order. Consider the example below:
a.
Mr.
Odudu died last week and was buried two days later. His children are in his
home town sharing his property now.
This is a story telling
us what events took place in order of time. (Chronological order)
b.
Mr.
Odudu died last week. It was uncertain what killed him, until it was discovered
that he drank poison. His children had gone to his village to share his property
as their tradition requires children of a deceased to inherit his belongings.
In the above, the cause
of Mr. Odudu’s death was his drinking of poison. And the effect was his death.
This is a good example of a plot. A story may have more than one plot. Hence we
talk of major plot and sub-plot. Sub-plots are woven into the major plot.
4.
Theme or Statement: Is the basic idea
expressed by a literary work. It is the central idea or observation about life.
It builds from the interplay of characters and plot. A theme may state that
life is good or not good, or condemn crime or exonerate crimes. It may sanction
or warn the reader to live a better life or adopt a new lifestyle. A good story
directs the reader to the author’s conclusion.
5. Subject
Matter: Often students mistake theme for subject-matter. Subject-matter is
what is discussed by a literary work while the theme is derived from the
comments on what is discussed or how the writer discusses the subject-matter.
The things, people and events a writer writes about are the subject matter. We
can liken a theme and subject-matter to the subject and predicate of a
sentence. While the subject is what performs the action mentioned in a
sentence, the predicate is the comment on the subject of the verb. E.g. Ojevwe
went home. Here Ojevwe is the subject while went home is the comment
(predicate).
Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children are very good children. They are obedient and hard-working
at home. They do all their assignments and home-works. They keep their house
clean at all times and respect one another. Their good-manners and hard-work at
school are indeed reflections of their good behavior at home. They are very
intelligent too. This has made them win scholarships. Their parents and
teachers praise them and are proud of them.
In this story, the
subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children. While the theme is good
behaviour, is praise-worthy.
Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children are very bad children. They are disobedient and lazy at
home. They do not care to do their assignment and home-works when they get home
from school. They don’t help their parents. They are the worst set of students
at school. They give their teachers headache. They are lukewarm and dull set of
students. Their behavior at school is the reflection of what they do at home.
Their parents and teachers are ashamed of them and always punish them.
In the above plot the
subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children. Even though the
subject-matter of this passage is the same as the first, the theme is
different. What is the theme?
Style: Is the manner a writer uses words to create his
literary work. The way a writer or a poet writes what they have to express. We
can rarely enjoy a story’s characters or plot without enjoying the author’s style.
A writer must solve problems of style from his first word to the last, by
answering such questions as: What kind of words shall I use? How shall I
present details? Should sentences be colloquial or formal? Should paragraphs be
long or short?
Point Of View or
Narrative Technique is a part of a writer’s style. Point of view may be
first person Narrator, Third person Narrator, Third person limited, or Third
Person Omniscient.
a.
First Person Narrator: This
is technique by which the writer tells his story as though he was one of the
characters in the story. The writer uses I, We, Us instead of He/ She, They,
Them.
b.
Third Person Point Of View: Here
the writer uses the third person pronouns (he/ she). The narrator/ writer
stands apart from the character.
c.
Third Person Limited Point Of View: This is a narrative
technique by which the writer describes the action as a single character might
see them. The writer sees the events through the eyes of his narrator.
d.
Third Person Omniscient: It is the method in which the narrator/ writer
reports on what many characters are thinking and feeling.
e.
Stream Of Consciousness: It is a
narrative technique by which the audience or reader is made to follow the mind
or thoughts of the narrator. The narrator here is not regarded as real
narrator though. The story is usually not told in the order the events took
place or in the order of time. This is because; the human mind we are made to
follow by this narrative technique can recall many things at the same time
CHAPTER TWO
GENRES OF LITERATURE
The
term genre means branch of literature. There are three main branches of
literature, namely are: Poetry, Drama and Prose.
POETRY: Poetry
has been variously defined by different poets. According to one school of
thought, it is the expression, in a language, of thoughts and feelings which
popped up intuitively. William Wordsworth however defines poetry as the
spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in the moment of
tranquility. The above definitions imply that poetry is natural, imaginative
and emotional expression. Poetry is also defined as “the art which uses words
as both speech and songs to reveal the realities that the senses record, the
feeling salute the mind perceives and the harping imaginations orders”. . It
employs beautiful language in passing across its message. A poem is usually
written in verse, stanza and arranged in lines.
UNSEEN POETRY
Unseen poetry is a piece of a poem,
examination candidates might not have seen before the examination. The poem is
not among the ones prescribed. Candidates are expected to read and demonstrate
their literary appreciation skills by answering questions based on the unseen
poem. Students who make good use of this textbook will find this section not
only easy but also interesting.
TYPES OF POEM
There
are four basic types of poem, namely are: Narrative poem, dramatic poem, A
closet Drama and lyric.
Narrative poem: tells
a story. Epic is an example of narrative poem
Dramatic poem: This
is a poem that tells its story through the speech of a character. There are two
types of Dramatic poem. A dramatic poem, in which only one character speaks, is
termed Monologue.
Closet Drama: A
play in a poem form that is designed to be read but not acted.
Lyric: Is a
short song-like poem, often expressing strong feelings. We may describe a lyric
poem in terms of what it discusses (Subject-Matter) or in terms of its form.
Hence we term a poem eulogy if it praises the qualities of someone or
something; or elegy if it laments the dead. Other poems classified according to
subject-matter are discussed below.
Panegyric poem: It is
a poem meant to praise a person or object.
Ode: It is a poem addressed
to somebody or something or an idea. It is often more or less a sober
reflection on an object or a personage. The following are examples of ode: Ode
to the Grecian Urn, by John Keats, Ode on the Morning of Christ’s Nativity-by
Milton, Ode to Nightingale, by John Keats e.t.c
Dirge: A
poem which expresses grief or mourns the dead. It is shorter and less formal
than Elegy. Songs of Sorrow, by Kofi Awoonor is an example of Dirge.
Poems
Described According To Forms
Sonnet: It
is a poem of 14 lines long with a definite rhyme scheme. There are two types of
sonnets. The Shakespearean sonnet and Pertrechan or Italian sonnet
.
Shakespearean sonnet is
also called English sonnet. It is named after William Shakespeare who is a
foremost writer of this type of poem. It has four divisions. From the first to
the twelfth line, it is divided into three stanzas of four lines each. The last
two lines form the fourth divisions.
Pertrechan or Italian
sonnet is a poem named after the poet Francesco Pertrach. It is usually divided
into two stanzas, viz: The OCTAVE (eight lines) and the SESTET (six lines). The
second stanza has the following rhyme scheme: c d e c d e. However note that
the rhyme pattern of the sestet is not constant. It may have cde dde etc, as
its rhyme scheme. Usually, the octave creates a problem while the sestet
resolves or comments on the problem.
Ballad: It is
a narrative poem which tells a simple and dramatic story. It is often meant to
be sung. A ballad has strong rhythms and rhymes which give it its songlike
qualities. The following are features of a ballad:
(i) Themes
of physical courage and love
(ii) Events that happen
to common people
Every
stanza of a Ballad is made up of four lines with the following rhyme - scheme:
ab ab, the first and the third lines usually have four stressed syllables while
the second and the fourth carry three syllables
Idyll: a
short poem that expresses a peaceful and happy scene.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Diction: It is
the choice of words of a poet. A good diction passes its message with suitable
words
Rhyme: It is
the repetition of similar sounds in different words. Rhyme often occurs at the
end of lines. E.g.(by / sky). For there to be a perfect rhyme, the consonants
preceding the rhyming vowel sounds must be different. E.g. ban /can, corn/ born
Internal Rhyme: If
the rhyming words are in the middle of a line of poem, the kind of rhyme thus
form is called internal rhyme.
End Rhyme: It is
a form of rhyme that occurs at the end of each line
Masculine Rhyme: Rhyme
made up of single stressed syllable e.g. Word/work
Feminine Rhyme: Double
rhyme (when rhyme consists of two syllables with a stressed syllable followed
by unstressed syllable e.g. ending/ pending
Rhyme- scheme: The
pattern or sequence of in which words rhyme with each other. It is usually
denoted aa, bb, cc, dd, e.t.c.
Alternate Rhyme-Scheme: It
occurs when first line of a poem rhymes with the third. The second, with the
fourth, the fifth with the seventh e.t.c.
Tone: Tone
is the inner voice which sends the feelings of the poet or the poet’s persona
to the reader. A tone may be of sorrow, anger, resignation, ridicule, contempt,
sarcasm, joyous e.t.c if a student is asked to state the tone of a poem; he is
expected to use appropriate word as one of the ones listed above, to describe
the tone. The tone of a poem has direct effect on the mood.
Mood: It is
the author’s or poet’s state of mind at the time of writing his poem. Put
differently, it is the emotional attitude of the poet to his theme.
Rhythm: Is a
word derived from a Greek word. It means movement from one part to another
part. Sounds are expected to flow in poetry. As we unstressed or stressed word
in a line of poem, flow of sound is generated. Briefly put, rhythm is that
element which gives a poem its musical quality.
Stanza: It is
an Italian word for stopping place. Stanza in a poem is a group of lines
considered as one unit. Each stanza contains a single thought or idea. Stanzas
are to poem as paragraphs are to a prose. Stanzas are usually separated by
spaces. A stanza may be named according to the number of lines it contains.
1. Couplet: a
stanza of two lines
2. Tercet: a
stanza that has three lines
3. Quatrain: a
stanza that contains four lines
4. Cinquain: a
five-line poem
5. Sestet: a six-line
stanza
6. Heptastich: a
seven-line stanza
7. Octave: a
stanza of eight lines
Imagery: It is
a language that produces pictures in the mind of a reader or a listener. In
other words, it is a form of language which calls up picture in the mind.
Imagery appeals to the following senses
1. Visual sense (sight)
2. Aural sense
(hearing)
3. Olfactory sense
(smell)
4. Gustatory sense
(taste)
5. Tactile sense
(touch)
6. Thermal sense (heat)
7. Motion
POETIC DEVICES
Figures of Speech: These
are expressions commonly used by poets in composing poems in order to arouse
feelings through evoking images in the mind. Figures of speech include:
metaphor, simile, synecdoche, allusion, symbolism hyperbole, meiosis, euphemism
and apostrophe.
Most of the examples
used in this chapter are drawn from some prescribed poems for SSCE and JAMB
candidates.
Meiosis: Also
termed understatement, is a deliberate understatement to achieve humour and
satirical effect. It is a direct opposite of hyperbole
A. Hyperbole: It is
an overstatement. An exaggeration of fact for the purpose of emphasis e.g.
1. His
head is bigger than a mountain.
2. All
the perfume of Arabia cannot take away her body odour
3. I am
so thirsty that I can drink all the water in the Atlantic Ocean
B. Simile: This
is a figure of speech used to compare two things which are different in their
nature but are alike in having the quality mentioned. It usually uses ‘as’
‘like’ in comparing things. E.g.
1. He is as strong as a
lion
2. We know the knife
scars serrating down your back and front like beak of the sword fish
3. The Nile and Nyaza
lay like two twins
4. Clothes wave like
tattered flags
It should be noted that
it is not simile when the comparison is between two similar things. For
example, the following is not simile; my car is like your car.
C. Metaphor: it is a direct
comparison between two unlike things. This figure of speech
is like simile. The difference is that while simile says something is like
something or as something, metaphor says something is another thing. We can
also define metaphor as the transfer of attributes (qualities) of one object to
another. ‘It is a compressed simile. E.g.
1. He is a palm tree
2. Ojo is a lion
3. I am the squirrel
teeth, cracked the riddle of the palm
4. Thou’rt slave to
fate
5. The pelting march
6. My vegetable love
Metaphor has two elements: The
tenor and the vehicle.
Tenor: It is the idea being
expressed
Vehicle: It is
the medium or image employed in expressing the idea e.g in example (2) above
lion is the vehicle while strength of the of the lion is the tenor (idea
expressed)
D. Personification: It is
a figure of speech that gives qualities of animate objects (living things) to
inanimate objects (non-living things). We can also define personification as
the giving of human qualities to non-human beings.
When we speak of things
like the sun, night, moon, fish or stars as doing or saying things just as we
talk of human beings we are giving human qualities to them. Examples:
1. The sun smiles on
the earth. The sun is smiling. But it is not a human being that can smile thus
we give it the human quality of smile.
2. The wind is friendly
tonight
3. Death knocks at his
door.
4. Clouds come hurrying
with the wind
5. Pregnant clouds ride
stately on its back
6. The wind whistles by
7. Jagged blinding
flashes, rumble tremble and crack
8.
Thus though we cannot make our sun
Stand still, yet we
will make him run
E. Euphemism
It is
a figure of speech by which we use a mild or indirect expression to avoid the
direct statement of harsh or unpleasant truth.
Examples
1.
The man passed away (to mean the man died)
2. Jacob got Okiemute
laid
3. Each day a weary
pony dropped
4. Each afternoon a
human skeleton collapsed
F. Apostrophe
It is a figure of
speech by which someone, abstract object or non-living thing is addressed
directly as if it could hear or it were present even though it is
absent. It is simply
described as direct address to inanimate object.
The speaker talks to an
imaginary second person who is not present or
cannot hear, directly.
Examples
1. Death be not
proud-(john Donne)
2. Oh JAMB why do you
treat me like this!
G. Synecdoche
It is a figure of
speech by which we use part to refer to a whole. In other words a part is used
to represent a whole or a whole make to stand for a part.
Examples;
1. All hands on deck
2. He is a mender of
soles
3. He has many mouths
to feed
4. We need ten hands
5. Okotete has several
fingers
N.B: all
hands in example one is used to mean human beings. Hands are part of human
being
Example2; soles
are part of shoes hence used to refer to shoes
Example 3.mouths
refer to people since mouth is part of human beings
Example 4.hands here
refer to workers
Example5-fingers refer
to children
F. Allusion
It is a reference to a
popular event in the past or an object bearing similarity to what is being
described. It mentions another person or topic in an indirect manner. There are
two types of allusions; biblical allusion and literary allusion.
Biblical allusion is a
reference to events in the bible. While literary allusion is a reference to
other literature books.
Examples
A Daniel comes to
judgment (The Merchant of Venice, William Shakespeare). The above statement is
used by Shylock to refer to the story of Daniel in the bible. In that story,
Daniel who acted as a judge over the case of a woman accused of adultery, was
able to give the right verdict being a wise man
1. John is a prodigal
son- prodigal son here refers to the parable of prodigal son by Jesus in the
bible.
2. Our relationship is
that of Hut-Tutsi-this refers to hostile relations between Hut and Tutsi
tribes, both in Rwanda, which culminated in genocide.
H. Symbolism
It is a figure of
speech that makes use of symbols to represent ideas. The use of an object to
suggest a meaning not clearly connected to that object. E.g.
Ekpo bore his cross
patiently-in this example cross is a symbol of suffering.
In her womb from east
to west
Big volcanoes cough and
blink
Belching streams of
liquid fuel
N.B: womb in the first
line of the poem symbolizes the earth while volcanoes represent oil wells
I. Contrast
It is a device by which
one object or idea is placed in opposition to another to highlight the
contrasted idea. It is usually for the purpose of emphasis.
Figures of Thought: These
are also literary devices employed by mostly poets to convey their messages in
a more aesthetic form. By surprising the reader at first reading, figures of
thought stimulate the reader’s thinking ability. They include, oxymoron,
metonymy and paradox
A. Metonymy
It is a literary device
by which we refer to something by another thing closely associated with it.
Examples
1. My boss employs
anything in skirt. Here skirt is used to represent girls since it is only girls
that wear skirt.
2. Crown gives up the
ghost. Crown in this example is used to mean king since it is closely
associated with kings.
3. The pen is mightier
than the sword. Here the pen refers to intellectuals while the sword represents
violent people.
B. Oxymoron
It is a literary device
which places side by side opposite qualities, often than not for the purpose of
sharp emphasis. It is also described as the juxtaposition of two apparently
contradictory ideas which modify each other in a sentence.
Examples
1. Loving hatred-Romeo
and Juliet, Shakespeare
2. I have a bitter
sweet experience
3. He maintained
eloquent silence during the seminar
4. Pregnant virgin
5. An open secret
C. Paradox
It is a statement that
appears impossible, absurd or self-contradictory but contains much wisdom and
it is true.
Examples;
1. The child is the
father of the man. This simply means that the child who is now being cared for
and provided for by the father, will one day grow up, and when his father is
old and cannot provide for himself the child would provide for him like a
father.
2. More haste less
speed. Sometimes we hurry to get certain things done. But in the process we
omit or forget things that will make us start all over again. In such a
situation our haste has only slowed down our speed at completing the required
assignment.
3. The more you look
the less you see.
4. Death, thou shall
die
D Antithesis: Literary
device in which ideas are contrasted by the use of diametrically opposed
statements. In other words, it is the placing side by side of opposite or
contrasting statements. Examples;
Prosperity doth best
discover vice
But adversity doth
best discover virtue.
Bacon
Figures of Sound
These are expressions
employed to give sound effect to a piece of literary work.
A.
Alliteration
It is the repetition of
similar consonant sounds at the beginning of words in a line of poetry.
Consonants sounds include: b, p, b, d, f, g, h, j k, l, t, w, m, n, s, q, v, z
etc
Examples of
alliteration
1. Motherly moon
2. Sitting on stool
outside mud hut
3. Let life
lead
4. Bleeding blood
5. Singing song
of solemn companionship
B. Assonance
[
It is the repetition of
two or more similar vowel sounds in a line of poem. E.g.
1. Coffee to keep
the PS awake on return journey
2. Green dreams
C. Consonance: It refers to the
repetition of consonant sounds in a line of poetry in the middle or the end of
words E.g.
D. Repetition
It is a rhetorical
device that repeats something for the purpose of emphasis or clarity.
E.g.
Man has ceased to be
man
Man has become beast
Man has become prey
(Nightfall in SOWETO,
Oswald Mtshali M.)
In this poem man and
has are repeated.
E. Onomatopoeia
It refers to words
whose sound suggests their meanings. Examples;
1. The vehicle zoomed
past
2. Catastrophic crisis
3. A Dominion dominated
by deceit is doomed
CHAPTER
THREE
DRAMA
Drama is one of the
three genres of literature. It is defined as a work of art acted on the stage
before an audience. We can also define drama as the recreation of life on the
stage. A Greek philosopher called Aristotle also defines drama as “imitated
human action”. This definition implies that what is acted on stage as drama,
copies actual life situations.
Play is often mistaken
for drama. A play cannot be termed a drama until it is produced on stage before
an audience. A play is therefore defined as a piece of writing designed for the
stage.
Professor J.M. Manly
listed three essential elements in drama. They are:
a. A Story (b) Told in
action (c) By actors who impersonate the characters of the story. We appreciate
the story, the plot and the themes of a drama through the actions and
conversations of the characters.
TYPES OF DRAMA
Comedy: It is
a kind of drama which amuses and ends happily. It strives to provoke laughter
e.g. the following are types of comedy. TheTempest, written by William
Shakespeare.
Comedy of manners: It
ridicules people who violate the social tradition and order of the society.
Every society at any given time, has laid down pattern of behaviour that people
have to abide to. Comedy of manners deals with the traditions, relations and
intrigues of people in a given society. Examples
(a) Love’s Labour’s
Last and (b) Much Ado About Nothing, both by William Shakespeare
Romantic Comedy: It is
a kind of comedy which deals with love affairs that involve a beautiful and
idealized central female character who is sometimes disguised as a man. This
love affair is usually rough but all difficulties are overcome in the end and
it ends happily. It was practiced by Shakespeare and some of his contemporaries
during Elizabethan’s period. Examples:
Midsummer Night’s
Dream, William Shakespeare.
Satiric Comedy: A
comedy that ridicules philosophical doctrines or political policies, or attacks
the disorder of society by ridiculing people who violate the standards of
manners or morals.
Tragedy: It is
a form of drama which end is usually sad. The leading character or the
character we admire most in a tragedy ends tragically, sorrowfully, or gets
involved in a situation that arouses sympathy. According to Aristotle, the
purpose of tragedy is to arouse feelings of pity and fear, as a result,
produces in the audience a catharsis
Modern tragedy is
derived from Greek and medieval tragedy. The Greek tragedy originated from
rituals of life and death. Medieval tragedy on the other hand, originated from
the representation of the life, death and resurrection of Christ Jesus.
Examples of Tragedy
1. The gods are not to
Blame, Ola Rotimi
2. Julius Ceasar,
William Shakespeare
3. Macbeth, William
Shakespeare
4. Hamlet, William
Shakespeare
5. Romeo and Juliet,
William Shakespeare
Features of Tragedy
1. A protagonist or
hero who commands respect in the society
2. A hero who
undertakes an action of a certain size or seriousness
3. Through the action
of the protagonist he falls into trouble or faced a physical suffering.
Tragic-Comedy: This
is a drama /play which have both qualities of a tragedy or comedy. It may begin
with a tragic plot but ends happily. Its action appears to be leading to a catastrophe
until an unexpected turn of events, usually in the form of abrupt happy end
changes everything.
Farce: A
humorous play in which the characters make silly mistakes meant to make people
laugh. Its action and events deviate from reality.
Melodrama: A
play that is full of exciting sensational actions or events and in which the
characters and emotions appear too exaggerated to be real.
ELEMENTS OF DRAMA
They include story,
plot, characters, act, scene, Dialogue, settings, stage, Audience, Catastrophe,
Denouncement and comic relief. (Setting, plot, story, characters have been
discussed under elements of literature)
Stage: A
platform usually in theatre, where actors and actresses, dancers perform. A
stage is otherwise described as the physical representation of the world of the
play.
Audience: A
group of people watching a performance of a play on stage. Drama is an
audio-visual literary work. The audience sees and hears the dialogue of the
actors who translate a play to drama on the stage. The audience serves as the
element of measuring the success or failure of the play.
Dialogue: This
means conversation between the characters or actors and actresses in a play or
drama. Dialogue is also found in other literary works like poetry and prose. It
has the following stylistic values:
(a) It advances the
action in a given way and is not used as mere ornamentations
(b) It reflects the
social position, character and special interest of the speakers. It changes
expressions and tone according to the speaker’s nationalities, dialect,
occupations and social standards.
(c) Although it is not
a word for word record of what was actually said in real life, it gives the
impression of naturalness.
(d) It does not only
give the interplay of ideas and personalities among the characters speaking,
but also provides a conversational give-and-take as opposed to series or
remarks of alternating speakers.
(e) It varies in
diction, phrasing, and rhythm e.t.c
Before 1558, the
tradition was: nobles and elevated characters speak in Blank verse and high
rhetoric while minor characters (underlings) speak in prose firm.
Act: It is a major division
in the action of play just as the novel has chapters so also a play is divided
into ACTS. This division was introduced by dramatist of the Elizabeth period.
These Elizabethan dramatists imitated a Roman playwright, by dividing the
actions into five acts.
However, during the
1900’s many writers imitated Chekhov by structuring plays in four acts. Whereas
in the 1900’s some plays were written in three acts.
Scenes: Sir
Edmond Chambers describes scenes as a continuous section of action in an
unchanged locality. Simply put, a scene is a logical unit into which an act is
divided. In today’s plays, a scene usually consists of units of actions in which
there is no change of place or break in the continuity of time.
In constructing a
scene, climatic arrangement is the most important principle. A scene may also
be that of relief, or dialogue scene, battle scene, court scene, and monologue
scene e.t.c
Comic Relief: It is
a humorous scene or funny incident or speech in a serious drama. In a tragedy
such humorous scenes are usually introduced to provide relief from emotional
intensity. This can as well, increase the seriousness of the story.
Catastrophe and
Denouement: This refers to the turning point in the life or
actions of the protagonist in an unfolding play. This turning point may result
in success or failure for the protagonist. The misery is solved or the
misunderstanding is cleared away at this point in the play. If the play is a
tragedy, this turning point is termed catastrophe. But in both tragedy and
comedy, this change of event is commonly referred to as Denouement. Denouement
is also called Resolution.
Denouement may involve
reversal (peripety, According to Aristotle) in the hero’s fortunes. The
reversal may be to the protagonist’s failure or destruction as we have in
tragedy.
CHAPTER FOUR
PROSE
This is the third genre
of literature. Prose is written in the ordinary spoken or written language of man.
The message of the prose is often conveyed without acting. A prose work may be
fiction or non-fiction.
Fiction; is
an imaginary story created or invented by a writer. E.g., The Joys of
Motherhood. .
Non-fiction; a true-life story.
Historical novel is an example of non-fiction.
. Autobiography; It is non-fictional prose
written by somebody about himself. Simply put, it is the life history of a
person written by the person himself. For example if Mary writes a novel that
tells the story of her life, such a story is called autobiography. African
Child written by Camara Laye and Second Class Citizen by Buchi
Emecheta are examples of autobiography.
Biography; This is the life story
of somebody written by another person. For example if Efe writes the story of
Okoro’s life such a story is Biography. This type of story may be written while
the person is alive or dead.
UNSEEN
PROSE
Unseen
prose refers to a passage usually adapted from a prose work which is not among
the prescribed Prose works. This section in the SSCE Literature Paper I
requires students to answer some questions based on the passage. For a
candidate to do well in this section he needs basic literary appreciation
skills which are discussed in this textbook.
TYPES OF PROSE
1. Novelette: It is
generally known as a narrative, longer than a short story but shorter than a
novel, especially a romantic novel which is considered to be badly written.
2. Short Story: It is
a narrative of event or many related events, which is less complex than novel.
3. Anecdote: It is
a short humorous or interesting story about a real person or event. It can show
a single aspect of personal life or event. E.g.
There was a man called
Tony who went to his friend’s party. When it was dancing time, Tony like other
people went to the middle of the arena to dance. He noticed something as he was
dancing: the people behind him applauded and hailed him tumultuously, while
those at his front just watched in silence. He thought that his backside was
doing more wonders than his front-side. He decided to turn his backside in
every direction so that he could gain the applause of all, which he enjoyed
very much. By the end of the party almost everybody had seen his backside.
He decided to dance
before a large mirror when he got home from the party to know for himself how
wonderfully he looked behind when dancing. It was then he saw in the mirror
that his trousers was torn behind. And since he had gone to the party without
underwear, his private part was in full view. It swung helplessly while he
danced and that was the cause of the uproar he had mistaken for applause.
4. Novel: It is
a long narrative fiction that has a more complex plot than a short story. It
can also be described as an ‘invented prose narrative of great length and a
certain complexity that deals imaginatively with human experience usually
through a connected sequence of events involving a group of persons in a
specific setting’. The novel shows life through plot, story, characters,
conflict and realism. The plot of a short story or novelette is simple and
straight forward. While that of a novel is complex and always include
sub-plots.
Types of Novel
1. Picaresque
2. Epistolary
3. Gothic
4. Romantic
5. Realist
6. Historical
7. Psychological Novel
8. Political novel
9. Detective novel
10. Sociological Novel
11. Novel of character
12. Novel of manners
1. Picaresque Novel: It
deals with a sequence of adventures of a rogue or outcast. It was common
between 17th and early 18th centuries. It is usually exciting
and lusty.
2. Novel of manners: It
deals with problems of personal resolution resulting from the complex
restrictions of highly formalized ‘codes’ of etiquette in good society.
3. Sentimental Novel: A
form of novel which emphasizes the importance of building and nurturing
emotionality, and a sentimental understanding of simple ways of life; the
beauties of nature and cordiality(friendship) between people of refined
sensibilities”
4. Gothic Novel: A
kind of novel common in the 18th centuries. It described romantic
adventures in frightening or mysterious environments.
The first gothic novel
was published in 1764 by Horace Walpole. The mystery of Udolpho, by Ann
Redeliffe is another example.
5. Historical Novel: It is
a novel that deals with past events. In historical novels, some notable figures
in the past are brought to life fictionally and characters are invented to help
reader understand how past events affected people.
6. Sociological novel: It
deals with the state and the impact of social factors on the characters in a
certain society. In this way we get to understand the reason behind character’s
behavior in the society. Sociological novel offer a thesis and supports it as
an answer to a social problem.
7. Detective Novel: It is
a form of novel in which a crime, usually crime of murder, is committed and the
criminal or perpetrators are unknown until a detective unravels the mystery
behind the crime. Most of James Hardley Chase novels fall under this category.
8. Psychological novel: It
stresses the inner life of characters. A psychological novelist focuses on the
inner life of the character, assesses his motives and explores such
psychological characteristics which led to external actions.
9. Novel of character: It
stresses the creation and building of character instead of unity of plot,
structure and exciting story.
10. Novel of incident: A
type of novel in which action in almost unrelated episodes dominate while
characters and plot are subordinate. There is more emphasis on thrilling
incident
than
characterization or
sustained
curiosity. Robinson Crusoe, written by Daniel Defoe is a good example.
ELEMENTS OF NOVEL
Elements of Novel
1. Setting
2. Character
3. Story
4. Realism
CHAPTER FIVE
LITERARY TERMS AND
TECHNIQUES
Some terms used in the
language of literary criticism and techniques employed in literary works are
discussed in this chapter. Understanding them will be of great help to senior
school certificate Examination and JAMB candidates.
DRAMATIC CONVENTIONS
A. Suspension of disbelief: This
is a dramatic convention which demands that we pretend that the people and
event we see in a drama are real. In the performance of a play, actors imitate
the characters in the play. For example, when your school decides to act
Wedlock of the gods or stage Women of Owu, or our Husband has gone Mad Again,
your classmates we act as the characters in the story. While the drama unfolds,
you believe that your classmate who is playing the role of Uloko or Oguoma is
actually Oguoma or Uloko.
In
other words, you suspend disbelieving that your classmate is not the characters
mentioned. Suspension of disbelieving helps audience to get the mental and
emotional appeals the drama puts forward
B. Soliloquy: It
refers to a speech made by a character to himself in a play. It occurs when a
character says aloud his thoughts to the hearing of the audience i.e. when a
character is thinking aloud. It is aimed at revealing to the audience
what is going on in the mind of the character.
Example:
Hamlet soliloquizes as
follows in the play; Hamlet, written by Shakespeare William.
To be, or not to be-
that is the question whether it’s nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows
of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against
a sea of troubles
And by opposing end
them?-to die- to sleep-
No more; and by a sleep
to say we end
The
heart ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to;
is a consummation
Devoutly to be wished.
Top die-to sleep
To sleep! Perchance to
dream.
C. Interior Monologue or Aside: This
is a convention in which a character talks to himself to the hearing of the
audience. The other characters are to pretend they do not hear even though they
hear what the character is saying to himself. The audience also suspends their
disbelief that the audiences do not hear.
D. Unity of Time: It is
a dramatic concept that demands that the time in a play should be limited to
specific number of hours. It could be 12 hours or even more. That is to say
that a play should not contain events that happened over a long period of time.
But some playwrights do not abide by this idea.
E. Unity of Action: It is
most important of the three. Originally, this idea was advanced by Aristotle.
It is however, later expanded to include unities of time and place. Aristotle
holds the view that all the actions in a play should have unity. Drama, he
believes, is an imitation of complete action of a given size. A whole should
have beginning, middle and the end with a causal relationship in the aspects of
the play so that if an aspect is detached, the actions become disjointed. That
is to say, a plot of an action should be naturally conceived to derive all its
part from a common action that unifies them. Put differently, all the plots in
a play should be properly connected to a major one
F. Unity of Place: It is an idea that
all the actions in a play should take place in one location. Put differently, that
all the actions in a play should be united in a certain city or town or
locality. A play is not supposed to unite actions that took place in far
locations. Shakespeare does not abide by the rule.
v
Didactic
Literature:
It is
a literary work meant to teach moral, branch of theoretical, religious or
practical knowledge various forms of satire are didactic.
v
Satire: It
is a literary work which lampoons human follies and frailties or vices as well
as institutions with a view to correcting them.
v
Allegory: Imaginary
narratives in which human beings and events have a symbolic meaning (i.e.
represent ideas such as justice or freedom). The narrative may talk about
something but has another thing in focus.
v
Epistolary: It is
a novel written in the form of letter
v
Fable: A
short story used to illustrate moral lessons in which animals talk and act like
human beings
v
Foreshadowing: It is
sometimes referred to as unconscious prophesy. A character may say something
which gives clue about a future event casually, or an event which foretells
what would happen later in the literary work or may take place. When this
occurs, we call it foreshadowing.
v
Euphony:
It is the pleasantness of sound.
v
Atmosphere: this
is the overall emotional feeling that the details a writer uses create. An
atmosphere can be described as sad, frightening or mysterious etc. A writer
creates atmosphere by the way he describes his settings, characters and events.
The writer chooses his words carefully so that the readers or audience will be
affected by his writing in the way he wants them to be affected. For example, a
writer who wants to stir the feeling of terror in a reader may use the details
below:
It was midnight. Joan
moved on the bed suddenly as if startled. Her room was pitch black. Sinister
weeping of an owl was paving the way for the booming of gun by her window.
v
Cacophony:
Harshness or unpleasantness of sound
v
Diction:
It simply means choice of words of a poet or choice
of words of other literary writer.
v
Pun:
Play on words that have more than one meaning. For
example, bank (of a river), bank (where one saves money), bark (noise makes by
a dog), bark (cover of a tree). A writer may play on the meanings of these
words. When such occur, we describe it as pun.
vEpic: It is
a long narrative poem.
v
Characterization: It
refers to the creation of characters in a literary work by giving blood and
flesh to fictitious people. The writer is the creator of his characters. He
kills them if he wants them to die. He defends them if he wants them to be
protected. He makes them behave the way he wants them to behave. Hence a young
girl in novel can woo a young man in a novel and even sustain his love without
reservation even though if it may not be possible in real life.
Methods of characterization: (a)
explicit method/telling method and (b) dramatic/ action method. By the explicit
method, the writer makes us know a character via the authors description, this
description include what the character says about himself and other characters
says about him
The dramatic method: We
get to know the character through what he does or how he handles things and
what he says. Here there is no direct exposition by the author.
Types of Characters
1. Round
Characters—they are like real human beings. They are complex, showing many
aspects to their personality. They change and grow as the story unfolds.
2. Flat
Characters—they have only one side and usually show a single personality
quality. They remain the same throughout the story.
Elements of Character: to write a note on
or analyse a character, the following elements should be considered:
1. Appearance of the character- what
does the character look like? What kind of clothes does the character normally
wear? What do the above things say about the character?
2. Background of the Character-describe
where the character grows up. Talk about the character’s experiences. Talk
about the character’s education and the occupation of the character. Mention
the hobbies of the character.
3. Personality- is the character shy or
outgoing? Is he emotional or rational? Is he caring or cold? Honest or
dishonest? A leader or follower
4. Motivation- mention what makes the
character act as he acts, what he likes and what he hates as well as his
wishes, dreams, goals, desires, dreams and needs
5. Relationship-describe how the
character is related to other characters in the story; how he interacts with
these relatives, what resulted from these interactions.
6. Conflict-say whether the character
is involved in any conflict, mention the kind of conflict (is it conflict
within him or conflict between him and other characters?)
7. Type of Character-state whether the
character changes in the course of the story; whether he learns and grows or
just remains the same throughout the narration
v
Flashback:
It is a technique used to recall events that happen
before the point at which the work begins or events that occurred earlier. This
technique is used in the Joys of Motherhood. The first chapter tells about Nnu
Ego running to commit suicide and how she is prevented from taking her life. In
chapter two the writer continues to recall all the past events for us to
understand what led to the actions in chapter one.
Flashback is of two
types: Narrative flashback and dramatic flashback. A narrative flashback is
that type that
relates
the events as a story. While the dramatic flashback is acted. It is this form
that is employed in drama.
v
Protagonist:
It refers to the leading character in a prose work
or drama. It is a word derived from a Greek word, AGON
v
Antagonist: The
chief character who opposes the leading character, e.g. in the Merchant of
Venice by William Shakespeare, Shylock is the antagonist.
v
Suspense:
It is a technique used by a writer to arouse
curiosity in the reader. This he may do by mentioning an important event that
occurred without stating its cause. He gradually reveals what led to the event
as the work unfolds. Suspense is usually used to sustain the interest of the
reader.
v
Prompter: Somebody
who stays behind a scene to remind actors who forget their lines.
v
Playwright:
Somebody who writes play
v
Dramatist:
A person who writes a play and takes part in the
action.
v
Novelist:
One who writes a novel.
v
Poet:
A person who writes a poem
v
Poetic licence: It is
the freedom a poet has to enable him use words out of their ordinary usage in
order to achieve special effect
v
Poetic
Justice:
Comeuppance
on character in a literary work is called poetic justice.
v
Narrator:
The person who explains
what is happening in a work of literature.
v
Motif: A dominant
or repeated idea in a work of art. It is also defined as the formula idea or
pattern which forms the main base on which a work of literature is made or
developed.
v
Parody: A
poem meant to amuse which copies the style, characters and content of a know
poet or writer to mock him.
v
Pathos: A
quality which arouses feeling of pity, sorrow and sympathy from audience
v
Actor:
A male acting in the performance of a play E.g.
Pete Edochie (Okonkwo) is a popular Nig actor.
v
Actress: A
female who acts in drama. Example: Genevieve Nnaji is a popular Nigerian
actress.
v
Anthology: A
book containing collection of poems written by different poets.
v
Bathos: If is
a literary device in which word or ideas are arranged in descending order of
importance, form the sub line to the ridiculous. E.g. she was once managing
director, later his wife and now his house help.
v
Anti
– Climax:
Otherwise
termed bathos. It is the opposite of climax. It is the arrangement of event or
ideas in descending order, i.e. from highest to lowest, Example: Okoh lost his
one million Naira, his wallet and his handkerchief. Ojo lost his wife, his
building and motorcycle.
v
Burlesque: It is
a poem that ridicules ideas or objects.
v
Consume
irony: It is also called irony of fate. It occurs in a
literary work in which god or divine force is presented as if deliberately
dominating the affair of the chief character, giving him false hopes only to
frustrate and humiliate him at the end.
v
Anthonomesia: A
literary device that employs the name of a well known person or place to
represent some quality in a similar person, place, event or object E.g.
(1) Lagos is the New
York of Africa (2) wole Soyinka is the William Shakespeare of Africa.
v
Caricature: It
is the ridiculous imitation of one person of another person’s manner and
character.
v
Enjambment: It is
also referred to as run-on-line. Enjambment occurs
When ideas or thought
unit run from one line of a poem into another without pause. The line flows on
and on into the one following it.
v
Mime: It is
a drama performed without speaking. The actors use only gestures and
gesticulations in acting the play.
v
Malapropism: It is
the wrong use of a word which is far from the meaning of what you want even
though the word sounds like the correct one. It simply means the inappropriate
use of words. E.g. somebody may want to say Arsenal conceded a
goal but say conceived because he does not know the difference
between them since they sound alike.
v
Inversion: It is
the technique use in turning a sentence upside down against the normal
grammatical order of the clause, phrase or sentence. E.g. For man’s salvation
Jesus died.
v
Lineation: It is
the arrangement of poem in lines
v
Catharsis:
It is a term used to
describe the purgation of emotion. It is otherwise described as transfer of
feeling from actors to the audience in a play performance
v
Cast:
A group of people who represent character on a
stage performance.
v
Epigram:
A shot witty poem. Example
A
Christian is a man.
Who
goes to church on Sunday to confess the sins he commuted on Saturday which he
would continue
on Monday
v
Prologue:
It is defined as short
speech at the beginning of a literary work. It also means introductory part of
work of literature
v
Meiosis: A
figure of contrast that reduces somebody or an object to an inconsequential
size or status even though the person or object is
actually bigger than what is suggested. This is used mainly for the sake of
comic irony. E.g. Thompson is but an eye of Marcus.
v
Exposition:
It is the act of
explaining and making clear the background of event or actions that will occur
in advance so as to capture the audience or reader’s attention.
v
Anagnorisis: It is
an element of tragedy. A point at which a tragic hero discovered for the first
time, the trap set for him. He is usually helpless against his fate at this
point, hence he cannot retrace his steps Example: The point at which Macbeth
discovers that Macduff was not born of a woman.(Macbeth, William Shakespeare).
The three witches had earlier assured him that no man born of a woman could
kill him thus when he realized that Macduff was not born of a woman, it dawned
on him that he could be killed by him yet it was two late for him to retrace
his steps.
v
Tragic
Flaw: It is also called harmatia. It the weakness or
fault in hero which, exploited by forces against him, often causes his down
-fall
v
Interlude: It
refers to an interval or breaks between two parts of a drama or play
v
Epilogue:
It is a short speech at the end of a literary work.
v
Dues
ex Machina: It is the sudden turn
of event in a literary work.
v
Clown:
A character who dresses in a funny manner and tries
to amuse people by his jokes, actions and tricks.
v
Climax:
It
is the peak or highest point in a work of art where feelings are most intense.
It also means the arrangement of ideas or events in ascending order. E.g. I
came, I saw, I conquered- Shakespeare William.
* Theatre: It is the arena, structure
or a space where play are performed.
* Prop: It refers to the
stage property.
* Costume: It means the clothes
or style of dress actors and actresses wear on stage.
* Pastoral poem: A poem about village
or rural life.
* Cloak Room: A room where in which
stage property are kept.
* Stage manager: A person who
supervises and provides general instructions on the production or performance
of a play.
* Aphorism: A brief saying that
is true or full of wisdom
* Comedian: A person who acts in
comedies or somebody who tells jokes to entertain people. A female comedian is
termed a comedienne
* Directions: This means all the
information or instructions provided by a writer of a play about the settings
and actions of the characters in a play. These instructions are usually written
in italics and brackets. The directions in a play tell us whether a character
smiles or smiles sardonically or even cry e.t.c.
* Stage Directions: The instructions
telling the actors or performers what to do. Stage Direction is usually provided
by stage Director.
* Apparent Interrogation: It is similar to
rhetorical question. It means a question which does not need answer but has
literary effect. E.g. “Who disputes that hard-work leads to success?”
* Foil: A character that
contrasts with the virtues of another character and as such emphasizes the
qualities of the other character.
* Eponym or Eponymous Character: The character
mentioned in the title of a literary work. E.g. Romeo and Juliet are eponymous
characters of the great tragedy by William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet.
Hamlet is also an eponymous name used in Hamlet by Shakespeare.
* Autobiography: It is the life
history of a person written by himself. Biography which is mistaken for
Autobiography means the life history of another person written by another
person. For instance, if Juliet writes the life history of Henry, such a book
written by Juliet is called biography.
* Caesura: A pause near the
middle of a line of poetry. It is introduced by a punctuation mark
* Producer: Somebody who is in
charge of the financial and practical responsibilities of making a film/movie
or a play.
* Prolepsis: It refers to
mentioning future action in a way that seemed that the action had been
performed or had taken place E.g. ‘I eat little and I am satisfied’
* Tragedian: Is one who acts a
tragedy. Tragedienne is a female equivalent of tragedian
* Panegyric: A poem that praises
and extols somebody’s qualities (Virtues)
* Epyllion: A narrative poem
that is shorter than epic.
* Epithalamion: A poem written in
celebration of marriage.
* Prothalamion: A poem in celebration
of an independent marriage.
* Prosody: It is the patterns
of sounds and rhythms in poetry. It is also the study of the pattern in which
poetry is written (versification)
* Exemplum: It is a short story
highlighting morals
* Sarcasm: The use of words that
are opposite of what you mean with the intentions to hurt or to be unpleasant
to somebody or to make fun of them
Examples:
(i) James is such a very good student
that all his beautiful classmates are afraid to stay alone with him in the
class.
(ii) The commissioner has embarked on
noble capacity building which include the buying of ‘Okada’ for law graduates
* Symbol – An object, a sign or
person used to represent another E.g. Candle, water (to represent life), cross
(to represent suffering) e.t.c. whereas symbolism is the use of symbol to
represent somebody, something or a place or an idea.
* Nostos: A poem whose a subject-matter
describes return journey.
* Synopsis: A brief summary of
major events in a story or play.
* Epitaph: An inscription or
words written on a dead person’s gravestone or tomb.
* Epithet: It is an adjective
or phrase used to describe a person or an object either to praise or criticize.
* Transferred Epithet: An epithet
transferred from what it rightly belongs to another it does not belong.
Examples: He lied all night on a sleepless pillow (Sleepless which belongs to
he, is transferred to pillow (2) Margaret had a happy Easter holiday (here
happy which belongs to Margaret is transferred to Easter holiday)
* Prosiast: somebody who writes
a prose.
* Roman a clef: A novel based on real
events and people with pseudonyms.
* Saga Novel: A prose work that explores
the story of a family or social group over successive generations.
* Travesty: A work of literary
which imitates another literary work in a ridiculous manner to provoke laughter
* Opera: It is a play or
drama in which words or most of the words are meant to be sung.
* Soap Opera: A type of opera that
tells a story of the lives, and problems of a group of people. It is usually
broadcast on the television from time to time.
* Anthimeria: It refers to the use
of another part of speech in place of another. For example an adjective may be
used in place of another part of speech like verb. Or verb used as noun.
e.g.1. “Gift him with a novel
for Valentine “in this example gift, a noun is used in place of verb.
2. “He worked his did” here did is used
as a noon.
* Beggars Opera: a kind of opera
which mocks the futility and vanity of consumption of lace materials.
* Realism: A style that depicts
persons or objects in Literature as they are in real life. It also means the
quality of resembling real life.
* Verisimilitude: this is
similar to realism. It is the quality of appearing to be real or true. A novel
that lacks verisimilitude is termed Romance.
*Travelogue: it is a literary
work depicting a person’s travel experiences.
Curtain Raiser: short play staged
before the main action in a theatre.
Hero: A main male character in the work of
art.
Heroine: The Female
equivalent of a hero
Tragic Hero: the chief character
in a work of Art whose weakness contributed to his downfall
Anti-Hero: The main character
in a story who does not possess the qualities of a typical hero. He is
either unpleasant or more like an ordinary person.
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